Research methodology MCQ Quiz - Objective Question with Answer for Research methodology - Download Free PDF

Qualitative research is an inquiry process of understanding based on distinct methodological traditions of inquiry that explore a social or human problem.​ 

Types of Qualitative Research design 

Many varieties of traditions of qualitative studies exist in social sciences. They have been categorized by Creswell(1998) in the context of their forms, terminologies, and focus as under: 

Ex post facto study or after-the-fact research is a category of research design in which the investigation starts after the fact has occurred without interference from the researcher. For example, if there has been an economical recession in a country and the researcher tries to analyze the ‘cause’ or reason behind such a recession (which is the ‘effect’).

• An ex post facto research design is a method in which groups with qualities that already exist are compared on some dependent variable. Also known as "after the fact" research, an ex post facto design is considered quasi-experimental because the subjects are not randomly assigned - they are grouped based on a particular characteristic or trait.

• Although differing groups are analyzed and compared in regards to independent and dependent variables it is not a true experiment because it lacks random assignment.
• Ex-post-facto research can be defined as an empirically based investigation that does not involve the researchers’ direct control over the independent variables because they have already led to effects that can no Ex-Post Facto Research more be manipulated.
• The assignment of subjects to different groups is based on whichever variable is of interest to the researchers.
• On basis of the occurring events, there can be two designs or forms of research and these are Prospective research design and Retrospective research design.

Characteristics of ex post facto design

1. The research has control or a comparison group

As the research is done on basis of the study of the cause which has already led to its effects, it becomes necessary for the researcher to keep a control group, which can be used for comparison with the actual experimental group later on, in order to analyze the cause of an already occurred event.

2. The behavior, action, event or the treatment or the independent variable of the research cannot be manipulated or changed
3. The research focuses on the effects

. Only after having a detailed study of the phenomena or the event, the researcher tries to determine the causes behind such an event or phenomena.

4. The research tries to analyze the ‘how’ and ‘what’ aspect of an event

Since the researcher tries to understand the causal effects behind phenomena, the research basically focuses on how and what reasons have led that phenomena to occur.

5. Explores possible effects and causes

With the help of ex-post-facto research, the researcher tries to analyze the cause and effect phenomena of an event, action, or behavior.

Conclusion: In Ex Post Facto research subjects are not randomly assigned, the dependent variable is measured first and any number of hypotheses can be supported. It also requires a control group but rigorous control is not possible. Hence, option (4) is correct.

The correct answer is Construct validity

The validity of a research study refers to how well the results among the study participants represent true findings among similar individuals outside the study

Important Points

Construct validity

• It concerns the extent to which your test or measure accurately assesses what it's supposed to.
• It is the accumulation of evidence to support the interpretation of what a measure reflects.
• An example is a measurement of the human brain, such as intelligence, level of emotion, proficiency, or ability.
• Another example could be a doctor testing the effectiveness of painkillers on chronic back sufferers.
• Every day, he asks the test subjects to rate their pain level on a scale of one to ten - pain exists, we all know that, but it has to be measured subjectively.
• In this case, construct validity would test whether the doctor actually was measuring pain and not numbness, discomfort, anxiety, or any other factor

Additional Information

Concurrent validity

• It is a type of evidence that can be gathered to defend the use of a test for predicting other outcomes. 
• For example, let's say a group of nursing students take two final exams to assess their knowledge.
• One exam is a practical test and the second exam is a paper test. If the students who score well on the practical test also score well on the paper test, then concurrent validity has occurred

 Face validity

• It refers to the extent to which a test appears to measure what it is intended to me. It refers to the transparency or relevance of a test as it appears to test participants.
• A test in which most people would agree that the test items appear to measure what the test is intended to measure would have strong face validity. For example, a mathematical test consisting of problems in which the test taker has to add and subtract numbers may be considered to have strong face validity.

Convergent validity,

• It refers to the degree to which two measures that theoretically should be related, are in fact related.
• For instance, to show the convergent validity of a test of mathematics skills, the scores on the test can be correlated with scores on other tests that are also designed to measure basic mathematics ability.
• High correlations between the test scores would be evidence of convergent validity.

The research method which focuses on establishing causal relationships with controls among variables - independent, moderator, and dependent, is called the Experimental method.

Key Points

Experimental Research:

• In this, the Researcher directly manipulate the independent variable in order to assess its effect on the dependent variable
• Researcher utilizes the principle of randomization in research on the basis of which they can infer that other things remaining equal the effect is a result of manipulation of cause
• It is easier to interpret the relationship between the independent and dependent variables as they can manipulate the independent variables and see their impact on the dependent variable
• Direct cause and effect relationship study is established in experimental research.

Therefore option 4 is the correct answer.

1. Ex post facto method: An ex post facto research design is a method in which groups with qualities that already exist are compared on some dependent variable. The assignment of subjects to different groups is based on whichever variable is of interest to the researchers.

2. A survey is a research method used for collecting data from a predefined group of respondents to gain information and insights into various topics of interest.

3. The case study method is a learning technique in which the student has faced a particular problem, the case. The case study facilitates the exploration of a real issue within a defined context, using a variety of data sources.

• Formulating the research question:
  • ​This first stage of the research design leads to the emergence and development of the primary research question through a systematic process.
  • To be sure one goes out and studies an area with a particular sociological perspective, and with a focus, a general question, or a problem in mind.
• Answering the primary research question: 
  • ​The second stage of the research design is considered its main stage because it seeks to answer the primary research question resulting from the previous stage through systematic data collection and analysis.
  • This stage started by focusing on the emerging categories from the initial data gathering.
• Data collection and analysis is one of the key principles of Grounded Theory: which involves a strong interplay between data collection and data analysis that occur concurrently in an iterative manner. This practice provides initial categories of analysis and directions to the next data collection stage in terms of what additional data is needed and where and with whom it should be collected. Therefore, analysis in this research took place as data collection was being carried out, and, conversely, this process of analysis drove the process of data collection. 
• Theoretical saturation, where the collection of data continued until “additional analysis no longer contributes to discovering anything new about a category. Until the researcher has achieved theoretical saturation which “occurs when in coding and analyzing both no new properties emerge and the same properties continually emerge as one goes through the full extent of the data”.

Hence, in a nutshell, General research question → Sample theoretically decided → Collect data → Analyse data → Theoretical Saturation is a process of collecting data using theoretical sampling in grounded theory.

Research is a systematic inquiry towards understanding a complex social phenomenon or a process. They are broadly categorized into qualitative and quantitative research. Based on the research problem, the selection of research methods by the researcher may vary.
Key Points

Positivistic Research Paradigm:

A research paradigm is a research model or a perceptual orientation for conducting research that has been verified by the research community.

• Emphasizes quantitative analysis over qualitative analysis
• Relies heavily on experimentation
• Subscribes to pre-existing categories
• Hypotheses are put forward about the causal relation between phenomena
• Empirical evidence is gathered and analysed that explains the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable
• Employs a deductive approach to analyse data
• Collects numerical data

Important Points

Features of Qualitative Research:

• The objective is to explore a phenomenon to gain understanding by diving deeper into the problem
• Used qualitative methods of data collection such as interviews, focus groups, observation, etc.
• The sample size is kept small
• Believes in interpretivism paradigm and disregards the positivist assumptions and statistical data analysis
• Inductive reasoning is employe where things are observed, a pattern is developed and then the theory is formed
• The conclusions are descriptive rather than predictive.

Hence, it is clear from the given points that qualitative research avoids positivist assumptions and data analysis.

Validity is one of the important characteristics of scientific research. The term ‘Validity’ implies truth or fidelity. Thus, validity refers to the degree to which a test measures what it claims to measure. The word "valid" is derived from the Latin ‘validus’. A Valid measurement is always reliable.

• For determining the validity of a test, the test should be compared to another independent construct or criteria. 
• Validity is concerned with generalizability. 
• Validity has three important properties:
  • It is a relative term.
  • It is not a fixed concept or criteria of a test because it is an unending process that requires constant validation.
  • It is just a measure concept and not an all-or-none property.

Important Points

Research methodology refers to the techniques used to find and analyze information for a study, ensuring that the results are valid and reliable and that they address the research objective. It is the theoretical paradigm for data collection, analysis, and interpretation.

Important PointsResearch Methodology:

• Research methodology is a way of explaining how a researcher intends to carry out their research.
• It's a logical, systematic plan to resolve a research problem.
• A methodology details a researcher's approach to the research to ensure reliable, valid results that address their aims and objectives.
• It encompasses what data they're going to collect and where from, as well as how it's being collected and analyzed.

​​Therefore, the term "research methodology" refers to the methods used in data collection and analysis.

Additional Information

For example, steps involved in research methodology by the researcher.

• What data to collect (and what data to ignore)
• Who to collect it from (in research, this is called “sampling design”)
• How to collect it (this is called “data collection methods”)
• How to analyze it (this is called “data analysis methods”)

Qualitative research is research using methods such as participant observation or case studies that result in a narrative, descriptive account of a setting or practice.

Key points

The main features of qualitative research are: 

• It is a naturalist approach that seeks an understanding of social phenomena.
• It deals with human behavior from an informant's perspective.  
• This type of research analyzes non-numeric data. 
• It focuses on the ‘why and what’ of social phenomena.
• Inductive in approach.
• It has a Post Positivist approach.
• It is concerned with understanding the phenomena from the participant's perspective.
• The researcher becomes immersed in the situation, present or past.
• There is greater flexibility in both the methods and the research process.
• Biases of the researcher are quite evident in this type of research.

Hence, (A), (C), and (E) are the main features of qualitative research.

Additional Information

A research design is a framework for the methods and approaches. 

Key Points

• Experimental research is a study that is based on scientific research design.
• The characteristic features of Experimental research are the following: 
  • A purpose statement is a declarative statement that highlights the major goal or goals of a research study.
  • The goal of a study or research endeavor is to answer research questions on the topic.
  • A hypothesis is a statement that expresses expectations for the results of research.
  • After developing a hypothesis then collect numeric data. 
• In short, developing clear, restricted, measurable, and observable purpose statements, research questions and hypotheses are characteristic features of experimental research.
• Experimental research is a study that uses two sets of variables and is conducted in a scientific manner.

Thus, creating purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses that are narrow and measurable would mark the characteristic features of Experimental research.

Additional Information

• Grounded theory research: Grounded theory is a systematic approach to qualitative research where theories are generated through the collecting and analysis of data.
• Ethnographic research:   Ethnography is a qualitative data collection method and the researcher work in the field where they collect data through observations and interviews. 
• Narrative research:  It was defined as collecting and analyzing the accounts of respondents when they describe experiences and further interpret them. 

Research is a systematic way of investigation, a process of discovering new knowledge. Research is also considered as searching for and gathering information, usually to answer a particular question. Each research study has its own specific purpose.

Scientific Method Is Used In Empirical Researches.

• The word empirical describes any information gained by experience, observation, or experiment.
• One of the central tenets of the scientific method is that evidence must be empirical, i.e. based on evidence observable to the senses.
• Philosophically, empiricism defines a way of gathering knowledge by direct observation and experience rather than through logic or reason alone (in other words, by rationality).
• In the scientific paradigm, the term refers to the use of hypotheses that can be tested using observation and experiment.
• In other words, it is the practical application of experience via formalized experiments.
• Empirical data is produced by experiment and observation and can be either quantitative or qualitative.
• Science in general and empiricism specifically attempts to establish a body of knowledge about the natural world.
• The standards of empiricism exist to reduce any threats to the validity of results obtained by empirical experiments.
• For example, scientists take great care to remove bias, expectation, and opinion from the matter in question and focus only on what can be empirically supported.
• While many students of science believe that “empirical scientific methods" and “science" are basically the same thing, the truth is that empiricism is just one of many tools in a scientist’s inventory.

Thus, scientific method is the correct answer.

​

Validity is defined as the extent to which an assessment accurately measures what it is intended to measure. Let me explain this concept through a real-world example.

 Key Points

• If you weigh yourself on a scale, the scale should give you an accurate measurement of your weight.
• If the scale tells you you weigh 150 pounds and you actually weigh 135 pounds, then the scale is not valid. 

Important Points

• Concurrent  Validity: Concurrent validity is a type of evidence that can be gathered to defend the use of a test for predicting other outcomes.
• It is a parameter used in sociology, psychology, and other psychometric or behavioral sciences. Concurrent validity is a type of evidence that can be gathered to defend the use of a test for predicting other outcomes.
• It is a parameter used in sociology, psychology, and other psychometric or behavioral sciences.

Additional Information

• Face  Validity: Face validity is the extent to which a test is subjectively viewed as covering the concept it purports to measure. It refers to the transparency or relevance of a test as it appears to test participants.
• Internal Validity: Internal validity is the extent to which you can be confident that a cause-and-effect relationship established in a study cannot be explained by other factors. In other words, can you reasonably draw a causal link between your treatment and the response in an experiment?
• Predictive Validity: Predictive validity is the degree to which test scores accurately predict scores on a criterion measure. A conspicuous example is a degree to which college admissions test scores predict college grade point average (GPA).

Hence with the given information, we can conclude that the concurrent validity relates the measure to on criteria on which cases are known to differ.

According to the American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed phenomenon. It involves inductive and deductive methods.”

Research is a systematic inquiry towards understanding a complex social phenomenon or a process. Based on the research problem, the selection of research methods by the researcher may vary. There are two types of research on the basis of a process i.e Quantitative research and Qualitative research.

​Ethnographic Research:

• The goal of ethnographic research is to describe and interpret a cultural or social group.
• Ethnographers spend extensive time in the setting being studied and use observations, interviews, and other analyses to understand the nature of the culture. 
• Ethnography is an in-depth description and interpretation of cultural patterns and meanings within a culture or social group.  The main emphasis is on groups. 
• Ethnographers study specific cultural themes.

Phenomenological Research:

• ​The goal of phenomenological research is to fully understand the essence of some phenomenon. 
• This is usually accomplished with long, intensive individual interviews. 
• The purpose is to describe and interpret the experiences of participants in order to understand the essence of the experience as perceived by the participants. 
• The basis is that there are multiple ways of interpreting the same experience and that the meaning of the experience to each participant is what constitutes reality. 
• Focuses on the consciousness of human experiences.

Thus, the most appropriate answer is Ethnography and phenomenology.

Qualitative research :

• Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research.
• Naturalistic research: It is used to gain an understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It provides insights into the problem or helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative research. Natural settings are the direct source of data
• Qualitative Research is also used to uncover trends in thought and opinions, and dive deeper into the problem.

• The aim is to determine  qualitative variables
• Inductive analysis: Qualitative research discovers ideas, used in exploratory research with a general research objective. Researchers tend to analyze their data inductively.

• It is an unstructured method to observe, understand, and interpret the collected information.
• The result is completely subjective. Data take the form of words or pictures
• The hermeneutic and interpretive approaches are applicable here.
• Some of the qualitative methods are
  • In-depth interview: one-to-one interview
  • Focus group: characteristics of a specific group
  • Narrative research: the available literature covers the topic or issue
  • Phenomenology: the individual experience of a phenomenon
  • Ethnography: the study of a culture
  • Case study research: the study of an organization or an entity
  • Content analysis: analysis of the different form of qualitative data
  • Grounded theory: development of a theory based on the collected data
• 

Therefore, A, C, and D only correct answer here.